Rational Choice Theory and Structural Functionalism a Supplementation and Assimilation Essay Example

Rational Choice Theory and Structural Functionalism: a Supplementation and Assimilation Essay Rational Choice Theory and Structural Functionalism: A Supplementation and Assimilation Great theories produce opposition in connection to their inconsistencies and while challengers may position the theory contra itself, followers tend to revise the theory in order to preserve it from dismissal. This usually occurs by broadening the original theory while maintaining that the revision is consistent with the theory’s original meaning. In exploring Talcott Parson’s Theory of Structural Functionalism I have been motivated by its ambiguities to revise it in such a way. I am not a proponent of Structural Functionalism and have strong ties to Rational Choice Theory. I enjoy that it is concerned with relating micro and macro levels of study rather than affirming that one is better than the other (Ritzer). I am also an atheist with no real ties to a moral code other than that dictated by societal norms (throughout this paper I will use the word society to refer to contemporary Anglo-Canadian society) and expectations, but my belief system rests in Ayn Rand’s philosophy of objectivism. I live according to motivated self-interest and believe that all choices great and small are rational. We will write a custom essay sample on Rational Choice Theory and Structural Functionalism: a Supplementation and Assimilation specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Rational Choice Theory and Structural Functionalism: a Supplementation and Assimilation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Rational Choice Theory and Structural Functionalism: a Supplementation and Assimilation specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Being raised in a household that avoided unnecessary communication at all costs compelled me to become a pragmatic and honest person in what little communication we did have. This pragmatism has consistently carried me through my interactions with others and has proven beneficial in seeking out and acting in my best interest. With this pragmatism comes an unrelenting want to avoid, deductive theory. This would explain why, in a position as a meta-theorist I feel compelled to assimilate Structural Functionalism to Rational Choice Theory. Due to its individualism, Rational Choice Theory could be considered neoliberal ideology. However, my interpretation leads me to understand that it does not necessarily lead to an individualistic model of society as a whole. For this reason I believe that the micro theory can easily and harmoniously be coincided with the macro theory of structural functionalism. In fact, despite its purported nature as a macro-theory, Parsons (1977) says that his theory can be extended to the microbiological level. To take from Coleman’s (1990) aim I’d argue that structural functionalism takes for granted an explanation for why and how social norms emerge as well as an account for the existence of dissent to these norms. Rational Choice Theory necessarily and seamlessly supplements Structural Functionalism and fills this theoretical void. Rational Choice Theory generally contests structural methods of explanation and assumes that society is equal to the totality of actions of individuals and that complex social phenomena can be explained in terms of the individual actions of which they are made up. This standpoint, called methodological individualism, holds that individuals are moved by their wants or preferences. Social order arises from these actions of individual self-interest. It positions itself in individualism and holds that sufficient sociological accounts involve individuals, their understanding of the conditions in which they are situated, and the reasons for choosing to take certain actions. Choices are made in relation to both their goals and the means for attaining these goals. This involves the rational actor who is relatively independent, egoistic, goal-oriented, and rationally calculating. In this way, we act in accordance to our hierarchy of preferences. As rational thinkers we are constrained by logic and as rational actors we are constrained by our temporal reality. Rational choice theories hold that individuals must foresee the outcomes of multiple courses of action and calculate the one that will be best for them. Rational individuals choose the alternative that is likely to give them the greatest fulfillment. Some reasons why attempts to reconcile Rational Choice Theory as a macro theory of social action may be contested include the problems of, collective action, social norms, and social structure. The question comes to be: if individuals consider the personal benefit to be made from each course of action, why would one ever choose to act in a way that would benefit others more than themselves? Why do people seem to follow norms of behaviour that lead them to act in altruistic way that seem to take precedence over their self-interest. For Parsons, (1977) this could be explained only by acknowledging that there is a normative, component in decision making. I would be quick to intimate that this understanding may be remedied to coincide with rational choice theory by suggesting that people are willing to make decisions that benefit others at the expense of their own immediate self-interest because they have regarded the course of action as continuing on longer than the immediate. Talcott Parsons makes some main assumptions about society including that all parts are interdependent, the whole may be impacted by the nature of one part, tendencies to change from within are controlled by systems and social action is voluntary in nature. Parsons argued that action had to be guided by social norms and values. Structural Functionalism proffers that society leans towards equilibrium and social order and society is seen as a biological body, in which systems keep the body healthy. Societal health is apparently guaranteed when individuals accept the general mores of their society (Parsons:1977). This theory of voluntarism does not suggest that agency is governed only by free will but rather that it is constrained by boundaries. These boundaries form a patterned structure of relationships which come to be known as norms. Parsons believes that agency is a combination of individual action and restrictions of social systems. He then also proposes however that the successful functioning of society requires collectivism, as opposed to rational action. He fundamentally contradicts himself in that he gives space for individual action within his theory yet his theory is deemed a rival to individualism and a proponent of collectivism. He asks the question, ‘How can society persist when its members are pursuing their own self-interested goals? ’ (Parsons:1951). He seemingly answers his own theoretical question in that within his methodology, individuals are both constrained by systems and driven by individual goals. He states that â€Å"the problem of order, and thus of the nature of stable systems of social interaction that is, of social structure, thus focuses on the integration of the motivation of the actors with the normative cultural standards which integrate the action system, in our context, interpersonally† (Parsons:1951). Parsons focus was on the external forces that shape our individual motivations. His theory of Structural Functionalism however leaves a gaping void in explaining deviant behaviour. He makes a grand assumption about the existence and control of normative values. There is no consideration for resistance or dissent to these values. This lack of attention to social conflict ignores power and inequality. To look at decisions as long chains of actions we can begin to see how an individual’s hierarchy of preferences may influence them to incur immediate dissatisfaction for greater more fulfilling satisfaction in the long run. There exists anticipation for future reciprocity that becomes accepted as a kind of norm. This understanding presupposes that individuals will develop trust in each other, a rational response in attempts to build partnerships. This can be harmoniously tied into Parson’s Structural Functionalist understanding in which norms guide the individual. Rational Choice Theory is simply a reduction of societal norms to the individual level in which in most cases acting in line with these norms is in the individual’s self-interest. In this way we can incorporate Parsons’ viewpoint that societies are self-regulating and stable. In the cases where it is not calculated to be in their best interest to conform to mores we observe deviance. This is where Parson’s theory lacks explanation and where Rational Choice Theory can methodologically pick up the pieces. References Coleman, J. S. 1990. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge: Belknap. Parsons, T. 1937. The Structure of Social Action. New York: McGraw-Hill. Parsons, T. 1951. The Social System. The Free Press, New York. Parsons, T. 977 Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory New York: Free Press. Ritzer, G. 1991. Metatheorizing in Sociology . Lexington Books , Lexington, MA. [ 1 ]. In Capitalism and Commerce (1991) Edward W. Younkins defines Ay Rand’s moral theory of self-interest as derived from mans nature as a rational being and end in himself. It recognizes mans right to think and act according to his freely-chosen principles, and reflects a mans potential to be the best person he can be in the context of his facticity.

Critical and Creative Thinking in Society Essays

Critical and Creative Thinking in Society Essays Critical and Creative Thinking in Society Essay Critical and Creative Thinking in Society Essay Essay Topic: Creative Critical Thinking The creative and critical thinking process was not so good with he soccer stadium process. The city did not request any pre-sale of season tickets like the hockey team did. The city of Lass Vegas did not speak with ML leadership as they did with the NIL. The city wasted valuable tax payer dollars and man hours to sign a petition the get the proposal for a stadium added to the ballot to be voted on. The petition was signed and the ballot was authorized, however there was no plans on how the money would be raised to pay for the stadium. This ultimately cost the city a possible ML team as they were informed formally by the ML that they are no longer considering Lass Vegas for possible expansion until at least 2018. Free will is defined as the power of acting without the constraint of necessity of fate. The ability to act at ones own discretion. Truth is defined as the quality of state of being true. That which is true or in accordance with fact or reality. A fact or belief that is accepted as true. Knowledge is defined as facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or product of understanding of a subject. Opinion is defined as a view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or knowledge. The beliefs or views Of a large number or majority Of people about a particular subject. When forming thoughts one has the free fall to think as their own, with no regret to how they feel or think. Free will is an individual act and is like a finger print, everyone is different and this is the great thing about free will. Truth is the ultimate desire, when forming thoughts all individuals are different and may have a different belief of what is true. The truth however must be true with fact no matter who or what the subject is. Knowledge is required when forming thoughts even though everyone has different knowledge levels. If a person does not have sufficient knowledge of a subject then they may not be able to engage with the subject on a meaningful level. Opinion goes with knowledge, all opinions are different. Without proper knowledge of a known subject a person may not have a valid opinion. When assessing situations free will is important as it allows discretion and no constraint. The truth will allow an individual to be confident with their opinion of the situation. The truth may differ from person to person, however an individual must be confident with the truth before making a final decision. Knowledge and opinion go hand in hand, a person just have the knowledge of a given subject to form an educated decision. An individual can still have an opinion, however without sufficient knowledge their opinion may not be valid. Through research it can be determined that there are numerous hindrances to the critical thinking process. The focus for this conversation will be on pride, denial, and wishful thinking. To overcome these hindrances one must swallow their pride in order to resolve a problem. Denial is always a circumstance that individuals will face when they think they are right or have the solution. In these situations the individual is right in their ends no matter what the outcome is. The chance of denial is always a factor amongst peers and co-workers as well as family. Wishful thinking can go hand in hand with denial as this occurs when individuals want or think a solution will solve the problem, however in reality their solution is not even close. Analyzing the information of a problem will help determine if the thought process will work to resolve a situation. A person must have a clear mind and be able to see and achieve the overall good for everyone involved. Critical thinking has no room for any kind of personal wants or gains. Critical thinking s a process used to find solutions to problems without regard to personal gain. An advertising situation where the perceived message was mistaken for the real message is Progressive Insurance. This insurance company provides insurance quotes for themselves as well as four other major insurance companies. Progressive does not always have the best quotes for their customers. Initially it was perceived that Progressive is not always the best insurance company. This perception is partially true, however there is more to the reality of the message being delivered. The reality of the message can be identified in two different ways. The first way shows that Progressive does not always provide the best quotes for customers. The second message shows how progressive will show their customers which company will provide the best quotes, as well as how much money the customer can save. This type of advertising can perceived as losing business, however the reality is Progressive is showing true savings and providing customers with the information to make a well informed and educated decision.

Definition and Examples of Complex Transitive Verbs

Definition and Examples of Complex Transitive Verbs In English grammar, a complex transitive is a  verb that requires both a direct object and another object or an object complement. In a complex-transitive construction, the object complement identifies a quality or attribute pertaining to the direct object. Complex-transitive verbs in English include believe, consider, declare, elect, find, judge, keep, know, label, make, name, presume, pronounce, prove, rate, regard, and think. Note that verbs often belong to more than one category. For example, made can function as a complex transitive (as in Her thoughtless remarks  made  him unhappy) and also as an ordinary transitive verb (She made a promise). The  adjective  or  noun phrase  that qualifies or renames the object that appears before it is sometimes called an object predicate or object predicative. Examples During the night leprechauns painted the barn green.The judge declared the man guilty on two counts.Jack found his brothers behavior deplorable.Elena Kagan clerked for Thurgood Marshall and has long considered him a hero.When the Congress unanimously elected George Washington president, he accepted reluctantly.This man had made her happy and  made her miserable, but he was dependable. (Allison Brennan, Compulsion.  Minotaur Books, 2015)Men have called me mad, but the question is not yet settled, whether madness is or is not the loftiest intelligence. (Edgar Allan Poe, Eleonora, 1842)We called him Mother Superior on account of the length of his habit. (Mark Rent-boy Renton, Trainspotting, 1996) Meaning in Transitives and Complex Transitives [M]any of the verbs that appear in complex transitive clauses will also appear in transitive clauses without an object complement; but when they do, there is a change of meaning. Think about the different meanings of the verb in the following pairs of sentences: (49a) Transitive: Ahmed found the professor.(49b) Complex transitive: Ahmed found the professor marvelous!(49c) Transitive: Hojin considered the matter.(49d) Complex transitive: Hojin considered the matter a waste of time. (Martin J. Endley, Linguistic Perspectives on English Grammar: A Guide for EFL Teachers. IAP, 2010) The Relationship Between the Two Complements of a Complex Transitive A  complex transitive verb  has two complements, an argument NP [noun phrase] direct object and either a predicate NP or an AP [adjective phrase]. (5a) We considered Sam [direct object] our best friend [predicate noun phrase].(5b) They elected Mrs. Jones [direct object]  president of the PTA [predicate noun phrase]. There is a special relationship between the two complements of a  complex transitive verb. The predicate NP or AP says something about or describes the direct object, just as the predicate NP that is a complement of a linking verb describes the subject. The predicate NP or AP is either currently true of the direct object or comes to be true of the direct object as a result of the action of the verb. Part of the meaning conveyed by (5a), for example, is that Sam is our best friend. Part of the meaning conveyed by (5b),  for example, is that Mrs. Jones comes to be president as a result of the action named by the verb. Thus, complex transitive verbs, like linking verbs, are either current or resulting verbs.(Dee Ann Holisky, Notes on Grammar. Orchises, 1997) Active and Passive As is the case with any type of object, the DO [direct object] in complex-transitive complementation can also be passivized. An interesting fact is that the co-reference between the OC [object complement] and the DO survives passivization. 59. They made him president.60. He was made president. Note, however, that it is the direct object and not the object complement that can passivize! 61. They made him president.62. *President was made him. (Eva Duran Eppler and Gabriel Ozà ³n, English Words and Sentences: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2013)

Design your own greenhouse Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Design your own greenhouse - Assignment Example be applied to each variety in order to enhance the best conditions for photosynthesis.if the temperature does not match the variety, growth is inhibited since respiration increases over photosynthesis. Very low temperatures inactivate the enzymes of photosynthesis while very high temperatures denatures the enzymes. At low temperatures there is a low uptake of carbon dioxide For high photosynthesis to be enhanced, the optimum temperatures of 15-40 degrees Celsius should be maintained. Light- plants make more food under a high quantity of light and photosynthesis is low in low quantity and hence low growth rate. The quality of light determines the amount of light absorbed by plant leaves for photosynthesis. Green light is barely absorbed as it is reflected away. Blue light helps leaf growth and also encourages flowering. Plants exposed to light for a long duration absorbs more light for photosynthesis. The light reactions take place in the thylakoid while the dark reactions take place in the stroma. A blue colour filter should be used in the greenhouse as it’s the best quality for a high growth rate. Air pollutants like dust particles and smoke should be avoided as they reduce light

Response & Recovery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Response & Recovery - Essay Example After doing this, the second step I need to do is to perceive imposing hazards that can affect the safety of the people and the environment. This entails securing the area to prevent accidents and further casualties, which might eventually lead to evacuation of people or residents within and around the area of disaster; as well as the potential hazards that rescue personnel and the affected community may face (Emergency Management Institute – FEMA, n.d.). The following step that I need to do after the first two aforementioned steps have been undertaken is to set up initial priorities and urgent supply necessities which take on the need to process requirements in terms of equipment, personnel, facilities and supplies that will support the activities for response and recovery operations. This phase of the operation is quite critical because everybody involved needs to be on an equal footing that puts strict compliance to having personnel who are trained for such situations with knowledge in the use of common terminology pertaining to incident amenities; the position or title of designated supervisors/heads; the role of each present organization within the recovery operations; and the description of resources. ... It is vital to the whole operation that a chain and unity of command is established before the whole operation actually proceeds. This will enable every individual involved to report to a selected supervisor that I will be assigning, thus eliminating the possibility of being given several contradictory orders that can affect the smooth flow of communication and field work. Having a unity of command allows different agencies (local, state or federal) to work as a cohesive unit and effectively mete out the desired services as expected. There is also an essential need for responders to have and know entrance and exit routes, making the staging area an efficient workplace for everybody (Emergency Management Institute – FEMA, n.d.). Parallel to the abovementioned paragraph is the organization of priorities which I will do. The first priority is always the safety of all the personnel involved in the operation since another loss of life or another casualty may undermine the self-conf idence and self-esteem of the staff. Making the place of the incident safe from further damage is the second priority to do away with accidents and further loss of lives. The third priority is the preservation of property, where relief operation personnel implements procedures to safeguard possessions within the vicinity of the disaster (Emergency Management Institute – FEMA, n.d.). Likewise, I need to be very specific about the goals of the operation that must be finished within a specified timeframe or period. The goals must be realistic and feasible; and must be within the authority that was vested on me as Incident Commander (Emergency Management Institute – FEMA, n.d.). Additionally it is

Drama coursework: response portfolio Scaramouche Jones :: essays research papers

Drama coursework: response portfolio Scaramouche Jones This year in year 10 G.C.S.E. drama we have been studying Justin Butchers play â€Å"Scaramouche Jones†. We read, discussed, developed and preformed certain parts of the play and using some of the explorative strategies of drama we gained a deeper understanding and appreciation of the play text that was explored. Before we began to read the play text we were put into groups of 2 and we were made to perform a one minute piece of a clown show. This sketch was based completely on our own interpretations of a clown act. This helped us to get into the character of a clown for what might have been our first time. For this piece I was put into a group with Stephanie Gorsach. We preformed a classic slap stick comedy clown act e.g. throwing imaginary pies and hitting each other. After we did this piece we began to read the play text for the first time. My first impression of the play was that it was very odd and was going to be incredibly boring. I was wrong! The first section of the play we explored was he opening scene. In the first section of the play we first meet Scaramouche Jones. We find out that he is a clown as he comes in from one of his many performances. Our first piece of performance was a 2 man show. It was the first scene of the play. For this piece I was put into a pair with Tashan Baptist. This piece was surprisingly hard for a first major piece as we had what I thought was a short time of 2 weeks to perform the piece. This was made even harder by the expectations of our teachers and the amount of pressure. This was our first introduction to the character of Scaramouche Jones. This piece helped me to experience the character for myself and after doing the slap stick clown act with Stephanie I could just about imagine how tired he would be at 100 years old. The next piece of development that we did was the thought tracking process. For this piece we were put into small groups and asked to act out what we thought Scaramouche would be feeling at that moment in time. Unfortunately I missed this lesson but I asked one of my class mates to help me by going over this with me.

Investigate the theme of power, as presented in The Handmaid’s Tale

Power. What do we think of when we talk about power? Perhaps we think of the power of a country armed to the teeth with weapons of mass destruction. Perhaps we think of a millionaire, able to buy his way through anything thanks to the power of money. We may even think that we have some form of power ourselves, such as the power of having lent someone money or of having done someone a favour. Nevertheless, while we can easily think of examples of powerful people, we may have great difficulty thinking of a case where someone has absolutely no power. Could it be, however, that Offred is one of these isolated cases? To understand Offred thoughts properly, it is first necessary to understand the situation she is in. As a Handmaid in the Republic of Gilead, her sole function is to bear her Commander children. She is regarded by the state as a thing, not a person – hence her name Of-Fred (Fred is the name of her Commander). The Commander and his Wife are both superior to Offred in Gilead's hierarchy. Below her come all the other members of society. Of course, this does not automatically mean that she has power over all the lower classes. They are responsible to the Commander and his Wife only. Offred herself, of course, is responsible to the Commander, although the Wife also has the power to get rid of her: â€Å"If I'm caught it's up to Serena's tender mercies I'll be delivered. [†¦] I could become an Unwoman. But to refuse to see him could be worse. There's no doubt about who holds the real power.† This passage, of course, refers to Offred breaking the rules, so in that sense the Wife would have less power over her if she stuck to them. Offred addresses the issue of power in another extract, too: â€Å"But remember too that forgiveness is a power. To beg for it is a power, and to withhold or bestow it is a power, perhaps the greatest. Maybe none of this is about control. Maybe it isn't really about who can own whom, who can do what to whom and get away with it, even as far as death. [†¦] Maybe it's about who can do what to whom and be forgiven for it.† This is no doubt one of the most important parts of the book. Why would begging for and granting forgiveness be a power? Begging for forgiveness is, I think, not really much of a power. On the contrary, I feel that begging for anything is wanting, and therefore a weakness. Offred herself says: â€Å"To want is to have a weakness.† To forgive someone or not, on the other hand, is a power, and a great one at that. This can be simply explained by expanding on the idea that to want is to have a weakness. Weaknesses can be exploited, and if you do this, you have power over the person with the weakness. So if someone is begging for forgiveness, it automatically puts you in a powerful position, whether you grant forgiveness or not. Of course, this power is purely psychological. No physical power is being exerted. Yet we must not downplay psychological power in any way. In fact, most power is in the minds of those it affects, and is not based on tangible things. Of course, it may seem more logical that the power to kill someone is bigger than the one to grant forgiveness. This is not necessarily so. Death will get us all, sooner or later. The important part is life itself, and how it is spent. To live with a psychological power will therefore last until both people are dead, far longer than if one were simply to kill the other. The Commander and the Republic of Gilead may have power over Offred's body, but she now has power over the Commander too. From the moment on where Nick asks her to visit the Commander, she knows that he needs something. If he needs her, for whatever reason, she can control him. The fact that he has also overstepped the line means that he too can suffer grave consequences if the relationship were to be exposed, even if by the Commander's Wife. As we read on in the book, we strongly notice how the ‘balance of power' is shifting slowly from the Commander and the state to Offred herself. The more people need her (Nick also seems to want something from her) the more power she will have. The Republic of Gilead, of course, tried to remove all power from the Handmaids, but because they occupy such a vital position in society, they automatically have quite a lot of power over the whole of society. This theme of power changing hands was no doubt one of the main ideas that Margaret Atwood aimed to weave into her story. Personally, however, I feel that it tends to be overshadowed by the many other themes (most notably utopian society and gender politics) so that it really does lose a major part of its impact. Indeed, my main criticism of the whole book would be that there are so many things mixed into it that it is impossible to appreciate all aspects fully.